Abraham lincoln (cont.)
In March 1861 in his famous First Inaugural Address, Lincoln explored the nature of democracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints in the American system:
"A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people."[202]
In his 1863 Gettysburg Address, Lincoln explained that the Civil War had a deep meaning, for it marked a new founding of the nation. He argued that it was born not in 1789 but in 1776, "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal". He declared that the sacrifices of battle had rededicated the nation to the deepest values of liberty, democracy and equality, "that this nation shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth".[203]
Domestic measures
Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of the presidency, which gave Congress primary responsibility for writing the laws while the Executive enforced them. Lincoln only vetoed four bills passed by Congress; the only important one was the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh program of Reconstruction.[204] Thus, he signed the Homestead Act in 1862, making millions of acres of government-held land in the West available for purchase at very low cost. The Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, also signed in 1862, provided government grants for state agricultural colleges in each state. The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' First Transcontinental Railroad, which was completed in 1869.[205] The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was made possible by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s.[206]
Other important legislation involved two measures to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a Federal income tax (which was new). In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariff (the first had become law under James Buchanan). In 1861, Lincoln signed the Revenue Act of 1861 creating the first U.S. income tax.[207] This created a flat tax of 3% on incomes above $800 ($19,307 in current dollars), which was later changed by the Revenue Act of 1862 to a progressive rate structure.[208]
Lincoln also presided over the expansion of the federal government's economic influence in several other areas. The creation of the system of national banks by the National Banking Acts of 1863, 1864, and 1865 provided a strong financial network in the country. In 1862, Congress created, with Lincoln's approval, the Department of Agriculture, although that institution would not become a Cabinet-level department until 1889. The Legal Tender Act of 1862 established the United States Note, the first paper currency in United States history since the Continentals that were issued during the Revolution. This was done to increase the money supply to pay for fighting the war.[207] In 1862, Lincoln sent a senior general, John Pope, to put down the "Sioux Uprising" in Minnesota. Presented with 303 death warrants for convicted Santee Dakota who were accused of killing innocent farmers, Lincoln conducted his own personal review of each of these warrants, eventually approving 39 for execution (one was later reprieved).[209]
In the wake of Grant's casualties in his campaign against Lee, Lincoln had considered yet another executive call for a military draft, but it was never issued. In response to rumors of one however, the editors of the New York World and the Journal of Commerce published a bogus draft proclamation which created an opportunity for the editors and others employed at the publications to corner the gold market. Lincoln's reaction was to send the strongest of messages to the media about such behavior; he ordered the military to seize the two papers; the seizure lasted for two days.[210]
Abraham Lincoln is largely responsible for the institution of the Thanksgiving holiday in the United States. Prior to Lincoln's presidency, Thanksgiving, while a regional holiday in New England since the 17th century, had only been proclaimed by the federal government sporadically, and on irregular dates. The last such proclamation was during James Madison's presidency 50 years before. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November to be a day of Thanksgiving, and the holiday has been celebrated annually then ever since.[211]
Administration, cabinet and Supreme Court appointments 1861–1865
Lincoln appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:[212]
Judge↓ Nominated↓ Confirmed↓
Noah Haynes Swayne 18620127January 21, 1862 18810124January 24, 1862
Samuel Freeman Miller 18620721July 16, 1862 18901013July 16, 1862
David Davis 18621210December 1, 1862 18770304December 8, 1862
Stephen Johnson Field 18630520March 6, 1863 18971201March 10, 1863
Salmon P. Chase 18641215December 6, 1864 18730507December 6, 1864
The Lincoln Cabinet[213][214]
OFFICE NAME TERM
President Abraham Lincoln 1861–1865
Vice President Hannibal Hamlin 1861–1865
Andrew Johnson 1865
State William H. Seward 1861–1865
War Simon Cameron 1861–1862
Edwin M. Stanton 1862–1865
Treasury Salmon P. Chase 1861–1864
William P. Fessenden 1864–1865
Hugh McCulloch 1865
Justice Edward Bates 1861–1864
James Speed 1864–1865
Post Montgomery Blair 1861–1864
William Dennison, Jr. 1864–1865
Navy Gideon Welles 1861–1865
Interior Caleb B. Smith 1861–1862
John P. Usher 1863–1865
States admitted to the Union
* West Virginia – June 20, 1863
* Nevada – October 31, 1864
Assassination
Main article: Assassination of Abraham Lincoln
Further information: Abraham Lincoln's burial and exhumation
A drawing of Lincoln being shot by Booth while sitting in a theater booth.
Assassination of Abraham Lincoln. From left to right: Henry Rathbone, Clara Harris, Mary Todd Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln and John Wilkes Booth
Originally, John Wilkes Booth, a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland, had formulated a plan to kidnap Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners. After attending an April 11 speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, an incensed Booth changed his plans and became determined to assassinate the president.[215] Learning that the President and First Lady would be attending Ford's Theatre, he laid his plans, assigning his co-conspirators to assassinate Vice President Andrew Johnson and Secretary of State William H. Seward. Without his main bodyguard Ward Hill Lamon, to whom he related his famous dream regarding his own assassination, Lincoln left to attend the play, Our American Cousin, on April 14, 1865.[216]
A 15 cent postage stamp depicting Lincoln with a beard.
On April 14, 1866, one year to the day after Lincoln's assassination, the U.S. Post Office issued its first postage stamp honoring the fallen President
As a lone bodyguard wandered, and Lincoln sat in his state box in the balcony, Booth crept up behind the President and waited for what he thought would be the funniest line of the play ("You sock-dologizing old man-trap"), hoping the laughter would muffle the noise of the gunshot. When the laughter began, Booth jumped into the box and aimed a single-shot, round-ball .44 caliber (11 mm) Deringer at his head, firing at point-blank range. Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth but Booth escaped; he was tracked down by the Army on April 26 and killed.
A steam engine with railroad workers standing in front of it.
Lincoln's funeral train carried his remains, as well as 300 mourners and the casket of his son, William, 1,654 miles (2,662 km) to Illinois
An army surgeon, Doctor Charles Leale, initially assessed Lincoln's wound as mortal. The dying man was taken across the street to Petersen House. After being in a coma for nine hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 A.M on April 15. Presbyterian minister Phineas Densmore Gurley then present was asked to offer a prayer, after which Secretary of War Stanton saluted and said, "Now he belongs to the ages."[217]
Religious and philosophical beliefs
Further information: Abraham Lincoln and religion
A painting of Lincoln sitting with his hand on his chin and his elbow on his leg.
Lincoln painted by George Peter Alexander Healy in 1869
Though he never joined a church, Lincoln was thoroughly familiar with the Bible and quoted it often. He held the strong belief in a Providence whose purposes were not discernable. His integration of religion and politics, according to historian Mark Noll, gives Lincoln enduring relevance as the nation's greatest public theologian.[218] Historians have debated whether Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language reflected his own personal beliefs or was a device to appeal to his audiences, which were mostly comprised of evangelical Protestants.[219] In recent decades some scholars have emphasized Lincoln's ongoing religious skepticism while others have argued his beliefs evolved during the 1850s and gravitated toward an acceptance of mainstream evangelical Protestantism during the Civil War.[220] In the 1850s Lincoln acknowledged "providence" in a general way, and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals; instead he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence. However, during the course of the Civil War (and the deaths of his children) Lincoln more and more often acknowledged his own need to depend on God and to seek to fulfill what he perceived to be God's purposes in the war, including the emancipation of slaves.[221] In particular historians have seen Lincoln's second inaugural address in terms of the tradition of the Puritan sermon. Lincoln drew on biblical concepts and rhetoric to expose the nation's errors, notably the national sin of slavery for which the prolonged punishment of the Civil War was God's judgment and punishment. Continuing in the jeremiad tradition, he prayed for an end to the war, called for forgiveness, and expressed hope for divine grace.[222]
Lincoln's theology, according to biographer James G. Randall, resembled Unitarianism. He felt that all men would go to heaven and no one would go to hell. He did not believe in the supernatural account of the birth of Christ. He often talked of God, but rarely mentioned Jesus as the Savior—indeed seldom mentioned Jesus at all. Many of his ancestors had been Quakers, and he deeply sympathized with their religion. Like many Quakers, he experienced a sense of mysticism, the sense of direct communication with the unseen. He was involved in several séances at the White House, sponsored by his wife, but did not take himself become a spiritualist. Lincoln had numerous superstitious beliefs, and sensed that his dreams were omens of the future; throughout his life he had a strongly fatalistic attitude. He saw himself as an instrument in the hands of God—thereby becoming in Randall's view, "a man of more intense religiosity than any other President of the United States.".[223]
As a child, Lincoln largely rejected organized religion, but the Calvinistic "doctrine of necessity" would remain a factor throughout his life. In 1846, Lincoln described the effect of this doctrine as "that the human mind is impelled to action, or held in rest by some power, over which the mind itself has no control".[224] There were few people who strongly or directly influenced Lincoln's moral and intellectual development and perspectives. There was no teacher, mentor, church leader, community leader, or peer that Lincoln would credit in later years as a strong influence on his intellectual development. Lacking a formal education, Lincoln's personal philosophy was shaped by "an amazingly retentive memory and a passion for reading and learning". It was Lincoln's reading, rather than his relationships, that were most influential in shaping his personal beliefs.[225][226]
Lincoln's religious skepticism was for a time fueled by his readings in Enlightenment and economic liberalism.[225] Consistent with the common practice of the Whig party, Lincoln would often use the Declaration of Independence as the philosophical and moral expression of these two philosophies.[227] In March 1860, in a speech in New Haven, Connecticut, Lincoln said, regarding slavery, "Whenever this question shall be settled, it must be settled on some philosophical basis. No policy that does not rest upon some philosophical public opinion can be permanently maintained." The philosophical basis for Lincoln's beliefs regarding slavery and other issues of the day require that Lincoln be examined "seriously as a man of ideas".[228]
In a February 22, 1861, speech at Independence Hall in Philadelphia, Lincoln said,
I have never had a feeling politically that did not spring from the sentiments embodied in the Declaration of Independence. ...It was not the mere matter of the separation of the Colonies from the motherland; but that sentiment in the Declaration of Independence which gave liberty, not alone to the people of this country, but, I hope, to the world, for all future time. It was that which gave promise that in due time the weight would be lifted from the shoulders of all men. This is a sentiment embodied in the Declaration of Independence.[229]
He found in the Declaration, justification for Whig economic policy and opposition to territorial expansion and the nativist platform of the Know Nothings. In claiming that all men were created free, Lincoln and the Whigs argued that this freedom required economic advancement, expanded education, territory to grow, and the ability of the nation to absorb the growing immigrant population.[230] It was the Declaration of Independence more than the Bible that Lincoln relied on specifically to oppose any further territorial expansion of slavery. He saw the Declaration as more than a political document. To him, as well as to many abolitionists and other antislavery leaders, it was, foremost, a moral document that had forever determined valuable principles for the future shaping of the nation.[231]
As Lincoln matured, and especially during his term as president, the idea of a divine will, somehow interacting with human affairs, increasingly influenced his beliefs and public expressions. On a personal level, the death of his son Willie in February 1862, caused Lincoln to look towards religion for answers and solace.[232] More than any political leader of the day he fashioned public policy into the mold of religious language, especially a kind of Old School Calvinism that avoided the evangelical, revivalistic fervor of the Second Great Awakening.[228] After Willie's death, in the summer or early fall of 1862, Lincoln attempted to put on paper his private thoughts on why, from a divine standpoint, the severity of the war was necessary:
The will of God prevails. In great contests each party claims to act in accordance with the will of God. Both may be, and one must be, wrong. God cannot be for and against the same thing at the same time. In the present civil war it is quite possible that God's purpose is something different from the purpose of either party—and yet the human instrumentalities, working just as they do, are of the best adaptation to effect his purpose. I am almost ready to say this is probably true—that God wills this contest, and wills that it shall not end yet. By his mere quiet power, on the minds of the now contestants, He could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun He could give the final victory to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds.[233]
In April 1864, in justifying his actions regarding Emancipation, Lincoln wrote, "I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. Now, at the end of three years struggle the nation's condition is not what either party, or any man devised, or expected. God alone can claim it."[234] In the difficult summer of 1864, when the Union Army was suffering severe casualties, Lincoln drew solace from the Bible. To his friend Joshua Speed, he said, "Take all of this book [the Bible] upon reason that you can, and the balance on faith, and you will live and die a happier and better man." He is also quoted as saying, "this Great Book...is the best gift God has given to man".[234]
In September 1864, Lincoln, placing the war squarely within a divine province, wrote in a letter to a member of the Society of Friends, "The purposes of the Almighty are perfect, and must prevail, though we erring mortals may fail accurately to perceive them in advance. We hoped for a happy termination of this terrible war long before this; but God knows best, and has ruled otherwise...we must work earnestly in the best light He gives us, trusting that so working still conduces to the great ends He ordains. Surely He intends some great good to follow this mighty convulsion, which no mortal could make, and no mortal could stay."[235]
Legacy and memorials
Further information: Cultural depictions of Abraham Lincoln
An aerial photo a large white building with big pillars.
Lincoln Memorial in Washington
Lincoln's death made the President a national martyr ,[236] He is regarded by the public and historians in numerous polls as among the greatest presidents in U.S. history, usually in the top three, along with George Washington and Franklin D. Roosevelt.[237] A study published in 2004, found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while law scholars placed him second after Washington.[238]
The ballistic missile submarine Abraham Lincoln (SSBN-602) and the aircraft carrier Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72) were named in his honor.[239] During the Spanish Civil War, the Communist-controlled American faction of the International Brigades named themselves the Abraham Lincoln Brigade.[240] Lincoln has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names,[241] including the capital of Nebraska.[242] Lincoln, Illinois, is the only city to be named for Abraham Lincoln before he became President.[243]
A drawing of George Washington hugging Lincoln in the clouds with angels in the background.
The Apotheosis of Abraham Lincoln, greeted by George Washington in heaven (an 1860s work)
Lincoln's name and image appear in numerous places. These include the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C.,[242] the U.S. Lincoln $5 bill and the Lincoln cent, and Lincoln's sculpture on Mount Rushmore.[citation needed] Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park in Hodgenville, Kentucky,[244] Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial in Lincoln City, Indiana,[245] and Lincoln Home National Historic Site in Springfield, Illinois,[246] commemorate the president.[247] In addition, New Salem, Illinois (a reconstruction of Lincoln's early adult hometown),[248] Ford's Theatre, and Petersen House (where he died) are all preserved as museums.[249] The Lincoln Tomb in Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield, Illinois, contains his remains, and well as the remains of his wife and three of his four sons.[250] There are 220 statues displayed outdoors of Lincoln.[251]
Abraham Lincoln's birthday, February 12, was never a national holiday, but it was observed by 30 states.[241] In 1971, Presidents Day became a national holiday, combining Lincoln's and Washington's birthdays, and replacing most states' celebration of his birthday.[252] As of 2005, Lincoln's Birthday is a legal holiday in 10 states.[253] The Abraham Lincoln Association was formed in 1908 to commemorate the centennial of Lincoln's birth.[254] The Association is now the oldest group dedicated to the study of Lincoln.[255]
Lincoln is the only U.S. President ever to be honored on a U.S. Airmail stamp, issued in 1960.[256][citation needed]
To commemorate his 200th birthday in February 2009, Congress established the Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Commission (ALBC) in 2000 to honor Lincoln.[257] The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in Springfield and is run by the State of Illinois.[258] Also, the United States Postal Service honored Lincoln with a Liberty Issue 4¢ postage stamp on November 19, 1954, and a Prominent Americans series (1965–1978) 4¢ postage stamp.[259]
See also
Book:Abraham Lincoln
Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.
American Civil War portal
Military of the United States portal
* Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln
* American School, Lincoln's economic views.
* Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln
* Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial
* Lincoln Kennedy coincidences urban legend
* Lincoln Memorial University
* Lincoln family tree
* John T. Morse's 2-volume biography of Lincoln
* Poetry of Abraham Lincoln
* Sexuality of Abraham Lincoln
References
Footnotes
1. ^ Goodwin, p. 91; Holzer, p. 232.
2. ^ Larry Tagg, The Unpopular Mr. Lincoln: The Story of America's Most Reviled President (2009)
3. ^ James G. Randall, "The Unpopular Mr. Lincoln," in Randall, Lincoln: The Liberal Statesman (1947) pp 65–87
4. ^ Harold Holzer "Lincoln the Orator," American Heritage, Winter 2009.
5. ^ Thornton, p. 101
6. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 20–22
7. ^ Donald (1996), p. 20
8. ^ White, p. 12, 13
9. ^ Donald (1996), p. 21
10. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 22–24
11. ^ Lamb, p. 189.
12. ^ Sandburg p. 20
13. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 26–27
14. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 30–33
15. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 28, 152
16. ^ Donald (1996), p. 36
17. ^ Benjamin Thomas, Abraham Lincoln (1952) pp 23-53
18. ^ Sandburg, pp. 22–23
19. ^ Donald (1996), p. 38–43
20. ^ White, pp. 25, 31, 47.
21. ^ Donald (1996), p.33
22. ^ Sandberg (1926), p. 10.
23. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 55–58
24. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 67–69; Thomas, pp. 56–57, 69–70.
25. ^ Lamb, p. 43.
26. ^ a b Sandburg, pp. 46–48.
27. ^ Donald (1996), p. 86
28. ^ Sandburg, pp. 50–51.
29. ^ Donald (1996), p. 93
30. ^ White, p. 125.
31. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 95–96
32. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 108
33. ^ White, p. 126.
34. ^ Baker, p. 120.
35. ^ White, p. 179.
36. ^ White, pp. 181, 476.
37. ^ White, p. 181.
38. ^ Emerson, Jason (June/July 2006). "The Madness of Mary Lincoln". American Heritage.
http://www.americanheritage.com/people/ ... iage.shtml. Retrieved 2009-09-03.
39. ^ Shenk, Joshua Wolf (October 2005). "Lincoln's Great Depression". The Atlantic.
http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200510/l ... depression. Retrieved 2009-10-08.
40. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 41–42.
41. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 43–46.
42. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 50–51.
43. ^ White, p. 59.
44. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 53–55.
45. ^ Lincoln (1992), p. 17.
46. ^ White, pp. 71, 79, 108.
47. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 67–69, pp. 100–101.
48. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 67–69 pp. 75, 121.
49. ^ Donald (1996), p 59.
50. ^ Paul Simon, Lincoln's preparation for greatness: the Illinois legislative years (1989) p 130
51. ^ Thomas, Lincoln p. 64; Basler, ed. Collected Works vol 1 p 75
52. ^ Donald p. 134
53. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 165–167.
54. ^ Guelzo, p. 63.
55. ^ Boritt, Gabor S. (1978). Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream.
56. ^ White, p. 135.
57. ^ Oates, p. 79.
58. ^ Harris, Lincoln's Rise to the Presidency (2007) p. 54
59. ^ Heidler, pp. 181–182.
60. ^ Oates, pp. 79–80.
61. ^ a b Basler (ed.) 2001, pp. 199–202.
62. ^ McGovern, p. 33.
63. ^ Basler (ed.) 2001, p. 202.
64. ^ Mueller, Jean West; Wynell B. Schamel. "Teaching With Documents: Lincoln's Spot Resolutions". National Archives.
http://www.archives.gov/education/lesso ... solutions/. Retrieved 2009-09-26.
65. ^ Donald (1996), p. 126.
66. ^ Donald (1996) p. 128-129
67. ^ Harris, Lincoln's Rise to the Presidency pp 55-57
68. ^ Donald (1996), p. 96
69. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 105–106, 158.
70. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 142–143, 156, 157
71. ^ "Abraham Lincoln's Patent Model: Improvement for Buoying Vessels Over Shoals". National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
http://americanhistory.si.edu/collectio ... &objkey=19. Retrieved 2008-06-17.
72. ^ Thornton, pp. 100–101.
73. ^ a b Donald (1996), p. 155.
74. ^ Dirck, p. 92.
75. ^ Handy (1917), p.440
76. ^ a b c Donald (1996), pp. 150–151.
77. ^ Harrison (1935), pp. 269, 286
78. ^ McGovern, pp. 36–37.
79. ^ Benjamin Thomas, Abraham Lincoln: A Biography (1952) pp 148-52
80. ^ White, p. 199.
81. ^ Basler (1953), p. 255.
82. ^ Oates, p. 119.
83. ^ White, pp. 205–208.
84. ^ McGovern, pp. 38–39.
85. ^ Donald (1996), p. 193.
86. ^ Oates, pp. 138–139.
87. ^ Donald (1996), p. 202.
88. ^ White, p. 251.
89. ^ Donald (1996), p. 205
90. ^ Harris, p. 98.
91. ^ McPherson (1993), p. 182.
92. ^ Donald, p. 214-224
93. ^ Carwardine, p. 89-90
94. ^ Donald, p. 242, 412
95. ^ See text of speech
96. ^ Carwardine, p. 97;Holzer, p. 157.
97. ^ Donald, p. 240
98. ^ Donald, p. 241
99. ^ Donald (1996), p. 244.
100. ^ Oates, pp. 175–176.
101. ^ Donald (1996), p. 245
102. ^ Sandburg, pp. 118–119.
103. ^ Donald (1996), p. 247-250
104. ^ Boritt 1997, p. 10.
105. ^ Boritt 1997, pp. 13, 18.
106. ^ Nevins (1950), pp. 261–272.
107. ^ Donald (1996), p. 254-255
108. ^ Donald (1996), p. 256
109. ^ Nevins (1950), pp. 277, 290, 298–305; Luthin, pp. 171, 197–198, 202–203, 210, 218.
110. ^ Mansch, p. 61.
111. ^ Harris, p. 243.
112. ^ White, p. 350.
113. ^ Nevins (1950), p. 312
114. ^ Edgar (1998), p. 350
115. ^ a b c Donald (1996), p. 267.
116. ^ Potter, p. 498.
117. ^ White, p. 362.
118. ^ Potter, pp. 520, 569–570.
119. ^ White, pp. 360–361.
120. ^ Donald (1996), p. 268.
121. ^ Vorenberg, p. 22.
122. ^ "Abraham Lincoln and the Corwin Amendment". Illinois Periodicals Online.
http://www.lib.niu.edu/2006/ih060934.html. Retrieved 13 September 2010.
123. ^ Donald (1996), p. 277-279.
124. ^ Nevins, The Emergence of Lincoln (1950) 2:458-62
125. ^ White, p. 369.
126. ^ Donald (2001), p. 268, 279.
127. ^ a b Donald (1996), p. 293.
128. ^ Donald p. 292
129. ^ Nevins (2000), p. 29.
130. ^ Sherman (1990) p. 185-186
131. ^ a b Oates, p. 226
132. ^ Donald (1996) p.302.
133. ^ Heidler 2000, p. 174
134. ^ Donald (2001), p. 304.
135. ^ Neely, p. 253, n. 7.
136. ^ Donald (1996), p. 315, 338–339
137. ^ Donald (1996), p. 331-333, 417.
138. ^ Donald (1996), p. 315-316
139. ^ Charles Francis Adams, "The Trent Affair," American Historical Review Vol. 17, No. 3 (Apr., 1912), pp. 540–562 in JSTOR
140. ^ Donald (1996), p. 322
141. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 325–326
142. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 295–296
143. ^ Donald, pp. 391, 392
144. ^ Donald, pp. 432–436
145. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 318–319
146. ^ Donald (1996), p. 349-352
147. ^ Donald (1996), p. 360, 361
148. ^ Nevins 1960, p. 2:159–62
149. ^ Donald (1996), p. 339-340
150. ^ Goodwin, p. 478, 479
151. ^ Goodwin, pp. 478–480.
152. ^ Goodwin, p. 481
153. ^ Donald (1996), p. 389-390
154. ^ Allan Nevins, The War for the Union: Volume II, War becomes Revolution (1960), pp 343–67
155. ^ Nevins (1960) 2:318-22, quote on p 322
156. ^ Donald (1996), p. 422-423
157. ^ Nevins 1960, pp. 2:432–50
158. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 444–447.
159. ^ Donald (1996), p.449-452
160. ^ Donald (1996), p.453-460
161. ^ "Introduction to Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address". InfoUSA. United States Department of State. Archived from the original on 2007-08-13.
http://web.archive.org/web/200708132342 ... rac/25.htm. Retrieved 2007-11-30.
162. ^ Donald (1996), p.462
163. ^ Donald (1996), p. 446.
164. ^ Thomas, p. 315.
165. ^ Nevins (2000) (Vol. IV), pp. 6–17.
166. ^ Donald (1996), p. 490-492
167. ^ McPherson (2009), p. 113.
168. ^ Donald (1996), p. 501
169. ^ Kloss, William. "The Peacemakers". White House Historical Association.
http://www.whitehousehistory.org/whha_a ... rt-06.html. Retrieved 13 September 2010.
170. ^ Thomas, pp. 422–424.
171. ^ Neely, Jr., Mark E. (December 2004). "Was the Civil War a Total War?". Civil War History 50 (4): 434–458. doi:10.1353/cwh.2004.0073.
172. ^ Thomas, p. 434.
173. ^ Donald (1996), p. 516-518
174. ^ Donald (1996), p. 565
175. ^ White, p. 668
176. ^ Mackubin Thomas Owens (March 8, 2004). "Mackubin Thomas Owens on Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America on National Review Online". National Review.
http://www.nationalreview.com/books/owe ... 251139.asp. Retrieved 13 September 2010.
177. ^ Donald, pp. 364, 365
178. ^ Donald (1996), p. 368.
179. ^ Donald (1996), p. 407.
180. ^ Nevins (1960), 2:239-40.
181. ^ Donald (1996), p. 396-398.
182. ^ Donald (1996), p. 555.
183. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 430–431.
184. ^ Donald (1996), p. 431.
185. ^ Kendrick, Paul and Stephen. "Lincoln & Douglass". American Heritage.
http://www.americanheritage.com/article ... 6_36.shtml. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
186. ^ Donald (1996), p.493-507
187. ^ Grimsley, p. 80.
188. ^ Basler (1953), p. 514.
189. ^ Donald (1996), p.531
190. ^ J. G. Randall and Richard Current, Lincoln the President: Last Full Measure (1955) p. 307
191. ^ Phillip Shaw Paludan, The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln (University Press of Kansas, 1994) pp 274–293
192. ^ Basler (1953), p. 333.
193. ^ Donald (1996), p. 568
194. ^ Donald, pp. 471–472
195. ^ Donald (1996), pp.485–486
196. ^ Nevins, War for the Union 4:206; Randall and Current, Lincoln the President 4:273
197. ^ Thomas, Abraham Lincoln p 512
198. ^ Jaffa, p. 399.
199. ^ Diggins, p. 307.
200. ^ Foner, p. 215.
201. ^ Jaffa, p. 263.
202. ^ Herman Belz, Abraham Lincoln, constitutionalism, and equal rights in the Civil War Era (1998) p. 86
203. ^ Wills, p. 39
204. ^ Donald (2001), p. 137.
205. ^ Paludan, p. 116.
206. ^ McPherson (1993) pp. 450–452
207. ^ a b Donald (2001), p. 424.
208. ^ Paludan, p. 111.
209. ^ Cox (2005) p. 182
210. ^ Donald (1996), p. 501-502
211. ^ "1863 Thanksgiving proclamation". National Park Service.
http://www.nps.gov/history/history/onli ... 2/sb2w.htm. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
212. ^ "Supreme Court Nominations, present-1789". United States Senate.
http://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/refere ... ations.htm. Retrieved 10 September 2010.
213. ^ "Cabinet & Vice Presidents". The Lincoln Institute.
http://www.mrlincolnswhitehouse.org/ins ... ubjectID=2. Retrieved 10 September 2010.
214. ^ North & South - The Official Magazine of the Civil War Society, Volume 11, Number 2, Page 42, accessed April 16, 2010, "How Lincoln made a cabinet"
215. ^ Harrison, pp. 3–4.
216. ^ Donald (2001), p. 594-597.
217. ^ Donald, pp. 598–599.
218. ^ Mark Noll, "Lincoln's God," Journal of Presbyterian History, May 2004, Vol. 82 Issue 2, pp 77-88
219. ^ Richard J. Carwardine, "Lincoln, Evangelical Religion, and American Political Culture in the Era of the Civil War," Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association, Jan 1997, Vol. 18 Issue 1, pp 27-55,
220. ^ For the historiography see Bernard Von Bothmer, "Devout Believer or Skeptic Politician? An Overview of Historians' Analyses of Abraham Lincoln's Religion: 1959-2001." Lincoln Herald, Dec 2005, Vol. 107 Issue 4, pp 154-166
221. ^ Nicholas Parrillo, "Lincoln's Calvinist Transformation: Emancipation and War," Civil War History, Sept 2000, Vol. 46 Issue 3, pp 227-53
222. ^ James Tackach, "Abraham Lincoln's Election Jeremiad: The Second Inaugural Address," Studies in Puritan American Spirituality, Dec 2004, Vol. 8, pp 147-169
223. ^ J. G. Randall and Richard N. Current. Lincoln the President: Last Full Measure (1955) pp 373-377, quote on p. 375
224. ^ Donald (1996), p. 15.
225. ^ a b Guelzo, p. 20.
226. ^ Miller, pp. 57–59.
227. ^ Guelzo, p. 194.
228. ^ a b Guelzo, pp. 18–19
229. ^ Jaffa, p. 258.
230. ^ Guelzo, pp. 194–195.
231. ^ Miller, p. 297.
232. ^ Wilson, pp. 251–254.
233. ^ Wilson, p. 254.
234. ^ a b Donald (1996), p. 514.
235. ^ Donald (1996), pp. 514–515.
236. ^ David B. Chesebrough, No Sorrow like Our Sorrow: Northern Protestant Ministers and the Assassination of Lincoln (Kent State University Press, 1994), pp. 76, 79, 106, 110
237. ^ Bose, p. 5
238. ^ Taranto, p. 264
239. ^ Sweetman, pp. 242, 256, 266
240. ^ Carroll, p. 94
241. ^ a b Dennis, p. 194
242. ^ a b Boritt 2006, p. 194
243. ^ Reinhart, p. 94
244. ^ "Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site". U.S. National Park Service. 2009-09-11.
http://www.nps.gov/abli/index.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
245. ^ "Lincoln Home National Historic Site". U.S. National Park Service. 2009-09-15.
http://www.nps.gov/libo/index.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
246. ^ "Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial". U.S. National Park Service. 2009-11-02.
http://www.nps.gov/liho/index.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
247. ^ Peterson, pp. 312, 368
248. ^ "Lincoln's New Salem State Historic Site". Illinois Historic Preservation Agency.
http://www.lincolnsnewsalem.com/. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
249. ^ "About Ford's". Ford's Theatre.
http://www.fordstheatre.org/home/about-fords. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
250. ^ "Lincoln Tomb". National Park Service.
http://www.nps.gov/history/history/onli ... site19.htm. Retrieved 10 September 2010.
251. ^ "Lincoln SOS! Project Endorsed". Heritage Preservation. heritagepreservation.org. 2010-08-26.
http://www.heritagepreservation.org/sos ... 06albc.htm.
252. ^ Schwartz, p. 196–199
253. ^ Schauffler, p. xi
254. ^ Peterson p. 263
255. ^ Ferguson, p. 147
256. ^ Scotts U.S. stamp catalogue
257. ^ Carroll, James R. (2009-01-12). "Let the Lincoln bicentennial celebrations begin". The Courier-Journal.
http://www.courier-journal.com/article/ ... /901120364. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
258. ^ "The Official Website of the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum". Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum.
http://www.alplm.com/. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
259. ^ Scotts U.S. Stamp Catalogue
Bibliography
Main article: Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln
* Baker, Jean H. (1989). Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393305869.
* Boritt, Gabor S. (1997). Why the Civil War Came. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195113761. <
* Burkhimer, Michael. One hundred essential Lincoln books (20003), 305 pages; historiography
* Carwardine, Richard (2003). Lincoln. Pearson Education Ltd. ISBN 9780582032798.
* Cox, Hank H. (2005). Lincoln And The Sioux Uprising of 1862. Cumberland House Publ.. ISBN 9781581824575.
* Diggins, John P. (1986). The Lost Soul of American Politics: Virtue, Self-Interest, and the Foundations of Liberalism. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226148777.
* Dirck, Brian (2008). Lincoln the Lawyer. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252076145.
* Donald, David Herbert (1996) [1995]. Lincoln. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9780684825359.
* Donald, David Herbert (2001). Lincoln Reconsidered. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 9780375725326.
* Edgar, Walter B. (1998). South Carolina: A History. University of South Carolina Press.. ISBN 9781570032554.
* Emerson, James (2007). The Madness of Mary Lincoln. Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 9780809327713.
* Fehrenbacher, Don E., ed (1989). Lincoln: Speeches and Writings 1859–1865. Library of America. ISBN 0940450631.
* Ferguson, Andrew (2008). Land of Lincoln: Adventures in Abe's America. Grove Press. p. 147. ISBN 9780802143617.
* Foner, Eric (1995) [1970]. Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195094978.
* Goodwin, Doris Kearns (2005). Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684824906.
* Grimsley, Mark (2001). The Collapse of the Confederacy. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0803221703.
* Guelzo, Allen C. (1999). Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President. W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. ISBN 0-8028-3872-3.
* Guelzo Allen C. Lincoln: a very short introduction (2009), 147 pages
* Harrison, J. Houston (1935). Settlers by the Long Grey Trail. J.K. Reubush.
* Harrison, Lowell Hayes (2000). Lincoln of Kentucky. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0813121566.
* Harris, William C. (2007). Lincoln's Rise to the Presidency. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 9780700615209.
* Heidler, David S. and Jeanne T. Heidler, ed (2000). Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.. p. 174. ISBN 9780393047585.
* Holzer, Harold (2004). Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9780743299640.
* Holzer, Harold; Edna Greene Medford, Frank J. Williams (2006). The Emancipation Proclamation: Three Views (Social, Political, Iconographic). Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 9780807131442.
* Jaffa, Harry V. (2000). A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-9952-8.
* Lamb, Brian and Susan Swain, ed (2008). Abraham Lincoln: Great American Historians on Our Sixteenth President. PublicAffairs. ISBN 9781586486761.
* Lincoln, Abraham (2001) [1946]. Basler, Roy Prentice. ed. Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings. Da Capo Press. ISBN 9780306810756.
* Lincoln, Abraham (1953). Basler, Roy Prentice. ed. Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln (9 vols.). Rutgers University Press. ISBN 9780813501727.
* Lincoln, Abraham (1992). Paul McClelland Angle, Earl Schenck Miers. ed. The Living Lincoln: the Man, his Mind, his Times, and the War he Fought, Reconstructed from his Own Writings. Barnes & Noble Publishing. ISBN 9781566190435.
* Luthin, Reinhard H. (1944). The First Lincoln Campaign. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780844612928.
* McGovern, George S. (2008). Abraham Lincoln. Macmillan. ISBN 9780805083453.
* Abraham Lincol. Oxford University Press US. 2009. ISBN 9780195374520.
* McPherson, James M. (1992). Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195076066.
* McPherson, James M. (1993). Battle Cry of Freedom: the Civil War Era. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195168952.
* McPherson, James M. (2007) [1996]. Drawn with the Sword: Reflections on the American Civil War. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195117967.
* McPherson, James M. (2008). Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief. Penguin Press. ISBN 9781594201912.
* Mansch, Larry D. (2005). Abraham Lincoln, President-Elect: The Four Critical Months from Election to Inauguration. McFarland. ISBN 078642026X.
* Miller, William Lee (2002). Lincoln's Virtues: An Ethical Biography. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40158-X.
* Mitchell, Thomas G. (2007). Anti-slavery politics in antebellum and Civil War America. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780275991685.
* Neely, Mark E. (1992). The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195080322.
* Nevins, Allan (1950). Ordeal of the Union; Vol. IV: The Emergence of Lincoln: Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861. Macmillan Publishing Company. ISBN 9780684104164.
* Nevins, Allan (2000) [1971]. The War for the Union; Vol. I: The Improvised War: 1861–1862. Konecky & Konecky. ISBN 9781568522968.
* Nevins, Allan (2000) [1971]. The War for the Union; Vol. IV: The Organized War to Victory: 1864–1865. Konecky & Konecky. ISBN 9781568522999.
* Nevins, Allan (1960). The War for the Union: War becomes revolution, 1862–1863. Konecky & Konecky. ISBN 9781568522975.
* Oates, Stephen B. (1993). With Malice Toward None: a Life of Abraham Lincoln. HarperCollins. ISBN 9780060924713.
* Paludan, Phillip Shaw (1994). The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 9780700606719.
* Peterson, Merrill D. (1995). Lincoln in American Memory. Oxford University Press U.S.. ISBN 9780195096453.
* Potter, David M.; Don Edward Fehrenbacher (1976). The impending crisis, 1848–1861. HarperCollins. ISBN 9780061319297.
* Reinhart, Mark S. (2008). Abraham Lincoln on Screen. McFarland. ISBN 9780786435364.
* Randall, J. G. Lincoln the President (4 vol 1945-55), highly influential multivolume biography
* Sandburg, carl. Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years (2 vol 1926) unusually well written narrative by famous poet
* Schwartz, Barry (2009). Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America. University of Chicago Press. pp. 196–199. ISBN 9780226741888.
* Swanson, James L. (2006). Manhunt: The 12-Day Chase for Lincoln's Killer. HarperCollins.
* Taranto, James; Leonard Leo. Presidential Leadership: Rating the Best and the Worst in the White House. Simon and Schuster. p. 264. ISBN 9780743254335.
* Thomas, Benjamin P. (2008) [1952]. Abraham Lincoln: A Biography. ISBN 9780809328871.
* Thornton, Brian; Richard W. Donley (2005). 101 Things You Didn't Know about Lincoln: Loves and Losses, Political Power Plays, White House Hauntings. Adams Media. ISBN 9781593373993.
* Vorenberg, Michael (2001). Final Freedom: the Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521652674.
* White, Jr., Ronald C. (2009). A. Lincoln: A Biography. Random House, Inc.. ISBN 9781400064991.
* Wilentz, Sean, ed. The best American history essays on Lincoln (Organization of American Historians, 2009), 252 pages; famous essays by scholars
* Wills, Garry (1993). Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-86742-3.
* Wilson, Douglas L. (1999). Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln. Knopf Publishing Group. ISBN 9780375703966.
* Zarefsky, David S. (1993). Lincoln, Douglas, and Slavery: in the Crucible of Public Debate. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226978765.
External links
Find more about Abraham Lincoln on Wikipedia's sister projects:
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Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity
* Abraham Lincoln Quotes, Facts, Pictures, Biography And Much More
* Abraham Lincoln at the Open Directory Project
* Abraham Lincoln at the Open Directory Project – Speeches and writings
* The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln
* Works by or about Abraham Lincoln in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
* Photographs of Abraham Lincoln
* Abraham Lincoln at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
* Mr. Lincoln's Virtual Library
* Poetry written by Abraham Lincoln
* Lincoln quotes collected by Roger Norton
* The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum Springfield, Illinois
* President Lincoln's Cottage
* US PATNo. 6,469—Manner of Buoying Vessels—A. Lincoln—1849
* National Park Service Abraham Lincoln birthplace (includes good early history)
* National Endowment for the Humanities Spotlight – Abraham Lincoln
* The Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Commission
* Lincoln/Net: Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project, Northern Illinois University Libraries
* Abraham Lincoln: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
* Essay on Abraham Lincoln and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
* The Entire Writings of Lincoln including an introduction by Theodore Roosevelt
Political offices
Preceded by
James Buchanan President of the United States
March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865 Succeeded by
Andrew Johnson
United States House of Representatives
Preceded by
John Henry Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
from Illinois's 7th congressional district
March 4, 1847 – March 4, 1849 Succeeded by
Thomas L. Harris
Party political offices
Preceded by
John C. Frémont Republican Party presidential candidate
1860, 1864 Succeeded by
Ulysses S. Grant
Honorary titles
Preceded by
Henry Clay Persons who have lain in state or honor
in the United States Capitol rotunda
April 19–21, 1865 Succeeded by
Thaddeus Stevens
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Enviado: 2/10/2010 18:08
